Life Sciences

Life Sciences Level 2 adopts a thematic approach, in which at least one (1) theme is chosen as the basis for study of, or to illustrate, relevant aspects of key life sciences areas in the Core. The purpose of this thematic approach is to allow for flexibility and teacher choice dependent on learner interest or particular geographical location, or to assist learners’ progress on a particular academic or vocational pathway.

Core content in relation to the three (3) key areas of study is outlined in the Course Content section below. The Core is intrinsic to the study of biological or life sciences and is compulsory. The order of delivery and the method by which the Core is presented are not prescribed. Parts of the Core may be studied as an introduction to the course; parts or the whole Core may be integrated into the selected theme(s). To some extent this will be dependent on the theme(s), as different themes will cover the core content to varying degrees.

At least one selected theme must cover current biotechnology concepts and relevant applications.

This course has a design time of 150 hours. The Core and selected theme(s) will account for approximately 140 hours of design time, of which approximately 40 hours is to be spent engaged in practical activities and laboratory work. The remaining 10 hours of design time is to be spent on an Investigative Study.

Knowledge and understanding of science, scientific literacy and scientific methods are necessary for learners to develop the skills to resolve questions about their natural and constructed world.

The purpose of science education is to develop scientific literacy, helping learners: to be interested in, and understand, the world around them; to engage in discourse about science; to understand the testable and contestable nature of science, and question the claims made by others about scientific matters; to be able to identify questions and draw evidence-based conclusions; and to make informed decisions about the environment, about their own health and well-being, and about the role and impact of science on society.

Life Sciences is the study of the fascinating diversity of life: as it has evolved, as it functions and how it interacts with the environment. It focuses on investigations of living systems at the subcellular, cellular and organism level. This knowledge enables us to explore and explain everyday observations, find solutions to biological issues, and understand the processes of biological continuity and change over time.

On successful completion of this course, learners will be able to:

1. have personal skills to plan, organise and complete activities, including practical tasks
2. understand basic biological concepts, theories and models from subcellular processes to ecosystem dynamics
3. understand how basic biological systems interact and are interrelated; the flow of matter and energy through and between these systems; and processes by which they persist and change
4. understand the role and impact of life sciences in society
5. apply basic scientific concepts and knowledge to biotechnical contexts
6. have basic practical skills in the use of techniques and equipment relating to life sciences
7. analyse basic data and interpret basic evidence to draw conclusions
8. communicate biological understanding, findings, arguments and conclusions using appropriate representations, modes and genres.

This course requires a suitably equipped laboratory and resources to conduct experiments.

Learners need to be able to access a wide range of reliable sources of information about the uses and applications of science within the wider community.

This course has a complexity level of 2.

At Level 2, the learner is expected to carry out tasks and activities that involve a range of knowledge and skills, including some basic theoretical and/or technical knowledge and skills. Limited judgement is required, such as making an appropriate selection from a range of given rules, guidelines or procedures. VET competencies at this level are often those characteristic of an AQF Certificate II.

This course has a size value of 15.

Each learner will complete an investigation that will represent at least 10 hours of design time. This study can be either an individual or a small group task.

The topic will be chosen in consultation with the teacher and will be based on any content or inquiry within the Core or the selected theme(s). There is no prescribed topic, method of investigation or format in which the study is presented. However, the investigation must contain some primary information or data and not be based solely on secondary knowledge and must adhere to a scientific inquiry approach as outlined in the Science Inquiry Skills section of the Course Content.

The Investigative Study may be assessed against criteria 1, 2, 3 and 8.

For the content areas of Life Sciences, the three interrelated strands - Science Inquiry Skills; Science as a Human Endeavour; and Science Understanding - build on learners’ learning in F-10 Australian Curriculum: Science. In the practice of science, the three strands are closely integrated: the work of scientists reflects the nature and development of science; it is built around scientific inquiry; and it seeks to respond to and influence society.

In Life Sciences, these strands are to be integrated into three key areas of study:

• Cells, systems and organisms
• Chemical and cellular processes that support life
• Ecosystem diversity and dynamics.

SCIENCE INQUIRY SKILLS

• Identify and construct questions for investigation.
• Plan and conduct investigations using inquiry-based methodology.
• Organise and use basic data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; use basic evidence to make conclusions.
• Communicate using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports.

SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR

• Scientific knowledge is influenced by and influences social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations.
• The use of scientific knowledge may have beneficial and/or harmful and/or unintended consequences.
• Scientific knowledge can enable scientists to offer reliable explanations and make reliable predictions.

SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING

CORE

Some or all of the Core content will be studied in relation to the selected theme(s).

Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of cells, systems and organisms (Criterion 5)

Cells (Cells as the Basis of Life)

• Cells as the basic organisational unit of life
• Identification and basic function of organelles
  • nucleus, nucleolus and nuclear membrane
  • mitochondrion
  • chloroplast
  • vacuole
  • cell membrane, cell wall
  • cilium, flagellum
• Differences between plant and animal cells
• Microscopy – use of light microscopes.

Multicellular Organisms (Introductory level)

• Multicellular organisms have cell specialisation and differentiation to sustain life
  (cells à tissues à organs à organ systems)
• Plants (dicotyledons only)
  • xylem transports water (process not required)
  • gas exchange (leaves and stomata)
• Animals
  • transport of materials (nutrients and wastes)
    • circulatory system
    • digestive system
  • gas exchange
    • respiratory system.

Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the cellular processes that support life (Criterion 6)

Materials Input/Output

• Cells require suitable energy inputs and also need to exchange materials with their environment
  • nutrients
  • gases
  • wastes
• Movement of materials across membranes occurs via diffusion and osmosis (at a basic level)
• Factors that affect exchange of materials across membranes (at a basic level)
  • SA:V ratio
  • size and nature of molecules.

Biochemical Processes in the Cell

• Basic properties of biological compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins)
• Enzymes
  • enzymes breakdown biological compounds
  • investigate factors affecting enzyme action
• Photosynthesis
  • word equation only
  • investigate factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis (such as availability of water, carbon dioxide and light)
• Cellular respiration
  • word equation only for aerobic respiration
  • products of anaerobic respiration
  • cellular respiration produces energy for cellular processes.

Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of ecosystem diversity and dynamics (Criterion 7)

Classification of Life

• Biological classification is hierarchical and based on different levels of similarity
• Classification systems (taxonomy) as a universal language (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species à binomial name)
  • use of keys (for example, dichotomous keys)
  • definition of a species.

Ecosystem Dynamics

• Terminology including
  • ecosystem
  • populations and communities
  • niches
• Distinguish between abiotic and biotic factors
• Energy flow through ecosystems
  • food webs
  • pyramids
• Cycling of matter (water and carbon)
• Feeding relationships
  • trophic levels (producers, consumers and decomposers)
  • predation, competition, symbiosis and disease
• Ecosystems change over time
  • population size and carrying capacity
  • influence of human activities.

THEMES

The following themes are EXAMPLES only. They are expanded below to illustrate some relationships between themes and core topics, and possible areas of study related to biotechnology:

• Human
• Agriculture
• Environment
• Biochemistry: The Chemical Basis of Life
• Marine Studies.

This list of themes and their suggested content are not exhaustive. Other themes might include microbiology, Tasmanian flora and fauna, aquaculture, forestry, etc. At least one theme studied must cover current biotechnology concepts and relevant applications.

HUMAN SCIENCE THEME

Human Evolution

• Humans and the evolutionary time-scale
• The Human evolutionary tree
  • Australopithecus genus
  • Homo genus
• Theories of human evolution
• How humans differ from other primates
• (bipedalism, big brains à tools, culture, consciousness)
• Human endeavour has impacted on human evolution (agriculture and modern medicine)
• Human population growth over time (graph).

Human Systems

• Digestive, circulatory and respiratory (expansion of the work covered in the core)
• Excretory
• Skeletal and muscular
• Skin
• Reproductive (include basics of mitosis and meiosis)
• Include some examples of common diseases.

Human Genetics (Introduction)

• Human karyotype
• Genetic definitions, real-life examples, and problem application
  • homozygous and heterozygous
  • dominant and recessive
  • allele
  • genotype and phenotype
  • punnet squares (monohybrid only).

Biotechnology

• For example, a study of any or all of:
  • reproductive technologies
  • DNA profiling (disease, forensics)
  • Human Genome
  • medical (stem cells, vaccines, etc)
• Ethical considerations of the use of biotechnology
  • confidentiality
  • cost (individual and society)
  • use of information.

AGRICULTURAL THEME

Factors influencing production such as:

• Climate
  • seasons
  • extremes and cycles (El Niño, La Niña, global warming)
  • water
• Topography
  • aspect (light intensity)
  • impact on soil profile (soil depth)
• Growth medium
  • development of soil (rock cycle, soil composition).

Plant production:

• Plant biology
• Plant requirements
• Plant reproduction (vegetative, sexual reproduction, life cycles – annuals, perennials, pollination – wind, insect)
• Production systems (pastures, crops, viticulture, fruit trees, flowers, timber)
• Diseases and pest control
• Harvesting.

Animal production:

• Animal biology
• Digestive systems (foregut, hindgut fermenters)
• Reproduction systems (avian – egg production, bovine – milk production)
• Production systems (meat, fish, milk, fleece, egg, honey)
• Disease and pest control.

Impacts of production on natural ecosystems such as:

• Eutrophication
• Pollution (insecticides, pesticides and herbicides)
• Biodiversity
• Tillage practices (fertilisers, erosion, salinity).

Biotechnology

• How biotechnology has advanced production; examples include:
  • genetic engineering
  • yield increase
  • nutrient modification (increasing protein content, edible vaccines)
  • pest control
  • disease resistance
  • frost resistance.

ENVIRONMENTAL THEME

Ecosystems

• Terrestrial ecosystems
• Aquatic ecosystems.

Population dynamics

• Factors affecting population growth
  • impact of introduced species on native populations
  • environmental resistance
  • density dependent and density independent factors
  • carrying capacity.

Human Activities (Australian context)

• Reduction of biodiversity, examples can include:
  • habitat destruction, pollution, pest introduction, species removal, salinity, climate change, availability and quality of fresh water (siltation, drought and algae blooms)
• Conservation management
  • endangered species
  • challenges to conservation
  • strategies for conservation management including biological control (successful and unsuccessful).

Biotechnology

• Development, use and regulation of biological systems (land, air, water)
• Green manufacturing technologies and sustainable development
• Breeding programs to maintain genetic diversity
• Rehabilitation of degraded areas using genetically modified organisms.

BIOCHEMISTRY: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE THEME

The Nature of Matter

• Atoms, ions and molecules
• Types of chemical bonds
• Chemicals required for life can be organic or inorganic
  • Organic molecules are based on carbon
    • carbon is significant in that it can form 4 bonds and is able to bond with other carbon atoms to form long chains
    • structure and function of important organic molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, DNA)
  • Inorganic molecules are also necessary for life (e.g. water)
    • water is a key substance in a range of chemical systems because of its unique properties.

Cellular Processes

• All cellular functions are derived from biochemical reactions
• Energy for life is stored in C-C bonds
  • photosynthesis: the basis for life as it is the principle mechanism for the transformation of light energy from the sun into useful forms
    • is a series of chemical reactions that convert energy from the sun to chemical energy in the form of glucose
  • cellular respiration (glucose only) is required for all cells to produce energy
    • the breaking of the C-C bonds in glucose releases energy for ATP creation

Note: do not have to understand the reactions for photosynthesis and respiration in detail, but understand, that the net equations are the result of many smaller reactions.

Chemical Reactions for Life

• Biological catalysts (enzymes) reduce activation energy required
• Life would not be sustained without enzymes (e.g. digestion)
• Investigate some of the various conditions present during chemical reactions that affect enzyme action, for example:
  • temperature (e.g. enzymes are temperature specific)
  • concentration
  • surface area
• Buffering systems, including
  • stomach acid
  • carbon dioxide in the blood.

Biotechnology

• Biotechnology from a biochemistry perspective involves synthesis, processing and detection of compounds
• Medical
  • synthetic production of insulin
  • natural product pharmaceuticals
• Other areas of current study in biotechnology that may be of interest are:
  • plant genetic engineering
  • new enzymes and production methods for biofuels
  • bioactive milk proteins
  • rapid screening for illicit drugs.

MARINE STUDIES THEME

Classification

• Biodiversity in a marine environment
• Unique nature of marine organisms and classification/identification of common Tasmanian species
• Use and construction of simple keys.

Materials Input/Output

• Factors changing nutrient levels (e.g. effects of currents, light)
• Importance of maintaining equilibrium
  • mechanism for regulating water/salt balance
  • ability of organisms to move between salt and fresh water
  • conservation of heat
• Survival mechanism at depth.

Multicellular Organisms

• Differences between phytoplankton and zooplankton
• Key characteristics of organs and organ systems in marine organisms
  • swim bladder
  • transport of gases
  • structure and function of simple asexual and sexual reproductive organs
• Adaptations
  • investigate ways organisms adapt to a coastal marine environment (behavioural, functional, physiological, and structural)
  • simple reproductive strategies
  • specific Tasmanian examples.

Ecosystem Dynamics

• Marine ecosystems (using a local example)
• Energy flow in a marine food chain
• Focus on pyramids of biomass and construction from field work
• Nutrient cycles
  • interaction between land and water
  • effect of sea surface temperature
  • impact of weather systems
  • impact of human activity
• Effects of change on a marine environment.

Biotechnology

• Use of genetics as a management tool in aquaculture
• Examples of biotechnology in use in Tasmania (e.g. aquaculture breeding programs)
• Issues arising from genetic engineering
• Pharmaceuticals and sun screens from bacteria inhabiting saline lakes in Antarctica.

Criterion-based assessment is a form of outcomes assessment that identifies the extent of learner achievement at an appropriate end-point of study. Although assessment – as part of the learning program – is continuous, much of it is formative, and is done to help learners identify what they need to do to attain the maximum benefit from their study of the course. Therefore, assessment for summative reporting to TASC will focus on what both teacher and learner understand to reflect end-point achievement.

The standard of achievement each learner attains on each criterion is recorded as a rating ‘A’, ‘B’, or ‘C’, according to the outcomes specified in the standards section of the course.

A ‘t’ notation must be used where a learner demonstrates any achievement against a criterion less than the standard specified for the ‘C’ rating.

A ‘z’ notation is to be used where a learner provides no evidence of achievement at all.

Providers offering this course must participate in quality assurance processes specified by TASC to ensure provider validity and comparability of standards across all awards.To learn more, see TASC's quality assurance processes and assessment information.

Internal assessment of all criteria will be made by the provider. Providers will report the learner’s rating for each criterion to TASC. The Investigative Study is a compulsory assessment activity against criterion 8 and other criteria as applicable.

The following processes will be facilitated by TASC to ensure there is:

• a match between the standards of achievement specified in the course and the skills and knowledge demonstrated by learners
• community confidence in the integrity and meaning of the qualification.  

Process – TASC will verify that the provider’s course delivery and assessment standards meet the course requirements and community expectations for fairness, integrity and validity of qualifications TASC issues. This will involve checking:

• learner attendance records; and
• course delivery plans (the sequence of course delivery/tasks and when assessments take place):
  • assessment instruments and rubrics (the ‘rules’ or marking guide used to judge achievement)
  • class records of assessment
  • examples of learner work that demonstrate the use of the marking guide
  • samples of current learner’s work, including that related to any work requirements articulated in the course document.

This process may also include interviews with past and present learners. It will be scheduled by TASC using a risk-based approach.

The assessment for Life Sciences Level 2 will be based on the degree to which the learner can:

• 1. demonstrate personal skills to plan, organise and complete activities
• 2. develop, interpret and evaluate life sciences experiments
• 3. collect, process and communicate information
• 4. demonstrate understanding of the application and impact of life sciences in society
• 5. demonstrate knowledge and understanding of concepts of cells, systems and organisms
• 6. demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the chemical and cellular processes that support life
• 7. demonstrate knowledge and understanding of ecosystem diversity and dynamics
• 8. apply scientific concepts and knowledge to biotechnology contexts

Life Sciences Level 2 (with the award of):

EXCEPTIONAL ACHIEVEMENT

HIGH ACHIEVEMENT

COMMENDABLE ACHIEVEMENT

SATISFACTORY ACHIEVEMENT

PRELIMINARY ACHIEVEMENT

The final award will be determined by the Office of Tasmanian Assessment, Standards and Certification from 8 internal ratings.

The minimum requirements for an award in Life Sciences Level 2 are as follows:

EXCEPTIONAL ACHIEVEMENT (EA)
7 ‘A’ ratings, 1 ‘B’ rating

HIGH ACHIEVEMENT (HA)
3 ‘A’ ratings, 4 ‘B’ ratings, 1 ‘C’ rating

COMMENDABLE ACHIEVEMENT (CA)
4 ‘B’ ratings, 3 ‘C’ ratings

SATISFACTORY ACHIEVEMENT (SA)
6 'C' ratings

PRELIMINARY ACHIEVEMENT (PA)
4 ‘C’ ratings

A learner who otherwise achieves the ratings for a CA (Commendable Achievement) or SA (Satisfactory Achievement) award but who fails to show any evidence of achievement in one or more criteria (‘z’ notation) will be issued with a PA (Preliminary Achievement) award.

The Department of Education’s Curriculum Services will develop and regularly revise the curriculum. This evaluation will be informed by the experience of the course’s implementation, delivery and assessment.

In addition, stakeholders may request Curriculum Services to review a particular aspect of an accredited course.

Requests for amendments to an accredited course will be forwarded by Curriculum Services to the Office of TASC for formal consideration.

Such requests for amendment will be considered in terms of the likely improvements to the outcomes for learners, possible consequences for delivery and assessment of the course, and alignment with Australian Curriculum materials.

A course is formally analysed prior to the expiry of its accreditation as part of the process to develop specifications to guide the development of any replacement course.

The statements in this section, taken from documents endorsed by Education Ministers as the agreed and common base for course development, are to be used to define expectations for the meaning (nature, scope and level of demand) of relevant aspects of the sections in this document setting out course requirements, learning outcomes, the course content and standards in the assessment.

Science Understanding

Unit 1: Biodiversity and the Interconnectedness of Life

Describing Biodiversity

• Biodiversity includes the diversity of species and ecosystems; measures of biodiversity rely on classification and are used to make comparisons across spatial and temporal scales (ACSBL015)
• Biological classification is hierarchical and based on different levels of similarity of physical features, methods of reproduction (……..) (ACSBL016)
• Biological classification systems reflect evolutionary relatedness between groups of organisms (ACSBL017)
• Most common definitions of species rely on morphological or genetic similarity or the ability to interbreed to produce fertile offspring in natural conditions – but, in all cases, exceptions are found (ACSBL018)
• Ecosystems are diverse, composed of varied habitats and can be described in terms of their component species, species interactions and the abiotic factors that make up the environment. (ACSBL019)
• Relationships and interactions between species in ecosystems include predation, competition, symbiosis and disease (ACSBL020)
• In addition to biotic factors, abiotic factors including climate and substrate can be used to describe and classify environments (ACSBL021)

Ecosystem Dynamics

• The biotic components of an ecosystem transfer and transform energy originating primarily from the sun to produce biomass, and interact with abiotic components to facilitate biogeochemical cycling, including carbon and nitrogen cycling; these interactions can be represented using food webs, biomass pyramids, water and nutrient cycles (ACSBL022)
• Species or populations, including those of microorganisms, fill specific ecological niches; the competitive exclusion principle postulates that no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for an extended period of time (ACSBL023)
• Ecosystems have carrying capacities that limit the number of organisms (within populations) they support, and can be impacted by changes to abiotic and biotic factors, including climatic events (ACSBL025)
• Ecological succession involves changes in the populations of species present in a habitat; these changes impact the abiotic and biotic interactions in the community, which in turn influence further changes in the species present and their population size (ACSBL026)
• Human activities (for example, over-exploitation, habitat destruction, monocultures, pollution) can reduce biodiversity and can impact on the magnitude, duration and speed of ecosystem change (ACSBL028)

Unit 2: Cells and Multicellular Organisms

Cells as the Basis of Life

• Cells require inputs of suitable forms of energy, including light energy or chemical energy in complex molecules, and matter, including gases, simple nutrients, ions, and removal of wastes, to survive (ACSBL044)
• The cell membrane separates the cell from its surroundings and controls the exchange of materials, including gases, nutrients and wastes, between the cell and its environment (ACSBL045)
• Movement of materials across membranes occurs via diffusion, osmosis (........) (ACSBL046)
• Factors that affect exchange of materials across membranes include the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the cell, (……..) and the physical and (……..) nature of the materials being exchanged (ACSBL047)
• In (eukaryotic) cells, specialised organelles facilitate biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cellular respiration, the synthesis of complex molecules (including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (……..)), and the removal of cellular products and wastes (ACSBL049)
• Biochemical processes in the cell are controlled by (……..), the presence of specific enzymes, and environmental factors (ACSBL050)
• Enzymes have specific functions, which can be affected by factors including temperature, pH, (……..) (ACSBL051)
• Photosynthesis is a biochemical process that in plant cells occurs in the chloroplast and that uses light energy to synthesise organic compounds; (……..) (ACSBL052)
• Cellular respiration is a biochemical process that (........) metabolises organic compounds, aerobically and anaerobically, (……..) (ACSBL053)

Multicellular Organisms

• Multicellular organisms have a hierarchical structural organisation of cells, tissues, organs and systems (ACSBL054)
• The specialised structure and function of tissues, organs and systems can be related to cell differentiation and cell specialisation (ACSBL055)
• In animals, the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of the organism is facilitated by the structure and function of the respiratory system at cell and tissue levels (ACSBL056)
• In animals, the exchange of nutrients and wastes between the internal and external environments of the organism is facilitated by the structure and function of the cells and tissues of the digestive system (for example, villi structure and function), and the excretory system (……..) (ACSBL057)
• In animals, the transport of materials within the internal environment for exchange with cells is facilitated by the structure and function of the circulatory system at cell and tissue levels (for example, the structure and function of capillaries) (ACSBL058)
• In plants, gases are exchanged via stomata and the plant surface; their movement within the plant by diffusion does not involve the plant transport system (ACSBL059)
• In plants, transport of water and mineral nutrients from the roots occurs via xylem (……..) (ACSBL060)

Unit 3: Heredity and Continuity of Life (Relates to the Human Science Theme)

DNA, Genes and the Continuity of Life

• Continuity of life requires the replication of genetic material and its transfer to the next generation through processes including binary fission, mitosis, meiosis and fertilisation (ACSBL075)
• DNA is a helical double-stranded molecule that occurs bound to proteins in chromosomes in the nucleus, (........) (ACSBL076)
• Variations in the genotype of offspring arise as a result of the processes of meiosis and fertilisation,(……..) (ACSBL084)
• Frequencies of genotypes and phenotypes of offspring can be predicted using probability models, including Punnett squares, and by taking into consideration patterns of inheritance, including the effects of dominant, autosomal (……..) alleles (……..) (ACSBL085)

Continuity of Life on Earth

• Life has existed on Earth for approximately 3.5 billion years and has changed and diversified over time (ACSBL088)

GLOSSARY

Apply
Use, utilise or employ in a particular situation.

Biotechnology
The application of science and technology to living organisms, as well as parts, products and models thereof, to alter living or non-living materials for human purposes.

Communicates
Conveys knowledge and/or understandings to others.

Data
The plural of datum; the measurement of an attribute, for example, the volume of gas or the type of rubber. This does not necessarily mean a single measurement: it may be the result of averaging several repeated measurements. Data may be quantitative or qualitative and be from primary or secondary sources.

Demonstrate
Give a practical exhibition as an explanation.

Describe
Give an account of characteristics or features.

Design
Plan and evaluate the construction of a product or process.

Develop
In history: to construct, elaborate or expand. 
In English: begin to build an opinion or idea.

Evaluate
Provide a detailed examination and substantiated judgement concerning the merit, significance or value of something.

Evidence
In science, evidence is data that is considered reliable and valid and which can be used to support a particular idea, conclusion or decision. Evidence gives weight or value to data by considering its credibility, acceptance, bias, status, appropriateness and reasonableness.

Explain
Provide additional information that demonstrates understanding of reasoning and/or application.

Familiar
Previously encountered in prior learning activities.

Genre
The categories into which texts are grouped; genre distinguishes texts on the basis of their subject matter, form and structure (for example, scientific reports, field guides, explanations, procedures, biographies, media articles, persuasive texts, narratives).

Hypothesis
A tentative explanation for an observed phenomenon, expressed as a precise and unambiguous statement that can be supported or refuted by experiment.

Identify
Establish or indicate who or what someone or something is.

Investigation
A scientific process of answering a question, exploring an idea or solving a problem that requires activities such as planning a course of action, collecting data, interpreting data, reaching a conclusion and communicating these activities. Investigations can include observation, research, field work, laboratory experimentation and manipulation of simulations.

Mode
The various processes of communication – listening, speaking, reading/viewing and writing/creating.

Model
A representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an explanation of the workings, structure or relationships within an object, system or idea.

Reasoned
Reasoned argument/conclusion: one that is sound, well-grounded, considered and thought out.

Representation
A verbal, visual, physical or mathematical demonstration of understanding of a science concept or concepts. A concept can be represented in a range of ways and using multiple modes.

Reproduce
Copy or make close imitation.

Select
Choose in preference to another or others.

Solve
Work out a correct solution to a problem.

Synthesise
Combine elements (information/ideas/components) into a coherent whole.

System
A group of interacting objects, materials or processes that form an integrated whole. Systems can be open or closed.

Understand
Perceive what is meant, grasp an idea, and to be thoroughly familiar with.

Unfamiliar
Not previously encountered in prior learning activities.

Validity
The extent to which tests measure what was intended; the extent to which data, inferences and actions produced from tests and other processes are accurate.